مشترکہ آڈیو

Statistics & Analysis P-value The probability of obtaining the observed result (or a more extreme one) if the null hypothesis is true. Low p-value (e.g. < 0.05) → result is considered statistically significant High p-value → no strong evidence against the null hypothesis Mean (M) The sum of all values divided by the number of values. → “average” Standard Deviation (SD) A measure of how much values spread around the mean. Low SD → values are close together High SD → large variation Median T